Carpooling Promotion in Paris

France provides financial incentives to local travel authorities (LTAs), employers and employees to promote carpooling. It also funds the development of carpooling infrastructure, ridesharing platforms that make it much easier to carpool, and fraud prevention mechanisms. This case study covers the formative research and early implementation in Paris of France’s National Daily Carpooling Plan.

Background

Note: To minimize site maintenance costs, all case studies on this site are written in the past tense, even if they are ongoing as is the case with this particular program.

France encouraged carpooling with the introduction of two laws. The success of this approach was driven by the social economic context, especially gasoline refinery strikes, gasoline shortages, and high fuel prices.

The Mobility Orientation Law, promulgated on Dec. 24, 2019, enabled local travel authorities (LTAs) to fund carpool trips much like they funded public transport. For example, in Paris’s Ile-de-France, buying a Navigo transit pass also provided access to partner carpooling platforms.

The Sustainable Mobility Package, promulgated on May 10, 2020, provided financial support for employees in the private and public sectors, to encourage the use of more sustainable mobility solutions (tax free up to €700 per employee per year) including carpooling. Public servants also had access to a €300 reimbursement for commuting by bike and/or ride sharing. The Sustainable Mobility Package was funded as part of a €100 billion recovery package, designed to help France recover from the economic effects of the COVID pandemic. The recovery fund was in turn funded by both France (60%) and the European Union (40%). Of the total amount, 30 billion was earmarked for green investments that would foster an ecological transition. Since France aimed to become Europe’s largest carbon-free economy, transport decarbonization was one of the package’s key measures.

Setting Objectives

In December 2022, France introduced its National Daily Carpooling Plan 2023-2027, which set a target of 3 million carpooling trips a day by 2027, over three times the 900,000 carpool trips a day that were being taking at the end of 2022.

Getting Informed

The development of the carpooling program in Pairs, and in France more broadly, was based on information from a range of research approaches that included analyses of local rideshare implementation experiences, stakeholder consultations, literature reviews, consumer surveys, and simulations. This section provides an overview of some of the key studies.

Barriers and Implementation Studies with BlaBlaCar and Karos

The first two published analyses of a rideshare implementation in France took place in 2009 and 2013. They looked at socio-demographic characteristics and usage patterns of BlaBlaCar users. BlaBlaCar was the largest online and app-based carpooling service in France at that time. The studies found different usage practices for passengers and drivers; and that those with a lower income level (students and others) were more likely to be passengers, while higher income users tended to be drivers, indicating possible equity balancing effects unique to carpooling.

A third implementation analysis, conducted in 2016, focused on the practical and psychosocial barriers to carpooling. It was conducted with users of the Karos carpooling service, which had been operating in France since the end of 2015 with the bulk of its users (80%) in the Paris / Ile-de-France region. This analysis included a review of the literature and local usage data (including the carpooling app’s chat texts from 285 users), followed by interviews with 21 carpoolers who had previously shared a ride but had not done so in the past month.

The study found significant barriers introduced by the app itself: prediction of trips that didn’t end up working out, unanswered requests, and unrealistic travel times introduced misunderstandings, uncertainties, and disappointments. About 50% of trip requests were not answered. The main reasons why trips requested were not accepted were difficulties agreeing on route (80%) and time (13%).

There was also significant confusion and disappointment among users who thought they had been contacted by someone wanting to arrange a carpool, when in fact the system had simply matched up two users as a potential carpool opportunity.

Recommendations to minimize these barriers included the following. 1. Allow drivers to indicate their preferred routes. 2. Ask users regularly about the relevance of predicted trips or let them adjust the predictions weekly. 3. Let users disable the scheduling and route prediction feature- especially helpful when they have the same number of regular and irregular trips.

The analysis also identified fear of strangers as a significant barrier to carpooling, especially for passengers. Fear of strangers accounted for 15% of carpool refusals, although only a few interviewees mentioned this issue. The study found that the app’s chat feature was used to become acquainted and reassure passengers before carpooling. Program managers expected that fear of strangers would lower further over time, with more local experience.

Stakeholder Consultations

France convened a National Mobility Conference from October to December 2017, involving around 30 participants such as carpooling operators, carpooling associations, associations of elected officials, Ile-de-France Mobilités, and local authorities.

During this period, it also held a Technical Day on short-distance carpooling with over 60 participants from decentralized services of the Ministry of Ecological Transition, local authorities, start-ups, design offices and non-governmental organizations involved in the development of short-distance carpooling services.

Home-Work Carpooling

In 2018, Cerema reported on short and medium distance home-work carpooling at 28 public and private organizations in France. The study was based on two online questionnaires with 20 mobility managers and 3,211 employees at these organizations.

Although limited in generalizability because of the small sample size, the first study indicated that key motivators for employers to encourage carpooling were the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, financial savings for employees, and corporate savings in parking space. The managers were ready to do more, but they wanted public authorities to (1) network public and private carpooling services and make them interoperable; (2) develop lanes and public parking spaces reserved for carpoolers; and (3) establish a guaranteed ride program for unforeseen events.

The second study found that regular carpoolers were willing to continue carpooling if (1) they could easily and quickly find a carpool when the need to travel arose (i.e. on demand), (2) they had a guaranteed ride program for unforeseen events, and (3) they received financial incentives.

The key barriers for staff included: (1) less freedom of movement, (2) childcare responsibilities and schedules, (3) difficulty finding a regular carpooler, (4) job incompatibility, and (5) the risk of being in a difficult situation should an unforeseen event occur.

Three main motivations for regular carpooling were much stronger than the other motivators: (1) personal financial savings and (2) noise and pollution reductions, and (3) helping others.

Employees’ preferred measures were: (1) a multimodal information service allowing the user to see all carpooling offers and combine carpooling with other transportation options; (2) establish a guaranteed ride program for unforeseen events; (3) financial incentives, and (4) employee support in the broad sense.

The Value of Carpooling In 2020, Monchambert conducted a cost-benefit survey analysis that found that the average value of travel time for carpooling as a passenger in France was about €26 per hour, 60% higher than for taking a train, and 20% higher than taking a bus. Passengers faced a ‘discomfort’ cost averaging €4.5 for each extra passenger in the vehicle.

International Experience with Dynamic Carpooling

In 2020, to meet the need for on-demand services, France researched international experience with dynamic carpooling, which provides an almost real-time offer to the “carpooling user”. The person wishing to take a carpooling route contacts the service a few minutes before their departure. The service then finds the appropriate driver who is able to offer the desired carpooling on the requested route. This study looked at organization, operation, management of financial transactions and technology used. It also identified potential pilot sites in France.

Modelling

In 2020, in order to better understand the possible impacts of various approaches, France developed and pilot-tested the Scenario Personarrative method, for combining scenario thinking and personas. During a two-hour workshop, 12 experts created personas and associated narratives describing the impacts ten years later, under each of the three approaches.

Also in 2020, Cerema used modelling to estimate the transport capacity and number of trips that a regular carpooling service could offer in a large French city. The study focused on the morning rush hour commute, and trips from a peri-urban area to an urban area. It looked at journeys made solo (driver only) and with a passenger. It considered detours and the extra time required to pick up the passengers. This method also enabled the researchers to evaluate existing intermodal exchange points, and planned infrastructure (e.g. carpooling parking lots, pick-up points, and drop-off points.)

In October 2021, researchers at the University of Paris explored the use of incentives to encourage carpooling for commuting in the Paris region. Their study measured the willingness of 1312 drivers to commute by carpool as a driver and as a passenger, with varying incentives (financial and non-financial). It found that the determinants of carpooling were different for drivers and passengers. Drivers were more affected by contextual variables while passengers were more influenced by individual variables.

That study also highlighted the value of carpooling with a colleague, and the key role of trust. Women in particular were more willing to carpool as a driver when the passenger was a colleague.

Prioritizing Audiences

This program was designed for ccommuters and their employers in the private and public sectors.

Delivering the Program

Lead Up to the National Daily Carpooling Plan

Public Service Employees

As noted in the Background section, with France’s Sustainable Mobility Package, promulgated on May 10, 2020, each public service employee could receive up to €300 towards carpooling costs, which could be combined with reimbursement for a public transport pass.

On Jan 1, 2022, this was extended to government contractors in addition to government staff. On September 1, 2021, this was extended to a broader range of vehicles, provided that motors or motor-assistance (e.g., e-bikes) were non-thermal. There was a 30 days-of-use minimum, with some flexibility based on working times. The lump sum reimbursement payment had been previously determined by the number of commuting days.

In December 2022, with the launch of the National Daily Carpooling Plan, this changed to three options: €100 when the number of trips was between 30 and 59 days; €200 when the number of trips was between 60 and 99 days; and €300 when the number of trips was at least 100 days.

Private Sector

Private Sector Employees could receive up to €800 per year. The payment was tax-free for the recipients and tax-deductible for the businesses.

Launch of the National Daily Carpooling Plan

The National Daily Carpooling Plan, launched in December 2022, included 14 measures, and a one year (2023) budget of 150 million euros.

Once launched, drivers who received financial contributions from their carpool passengers did not need to pay the Value Added Tax (VAT) nor social security contributions on these contributions, which were not considered income. Drivers had to have personal liability insurance that covered the carpoolers and allowed for other drivers. Similarly, employers did not need to pay social security contributions when they contributed financially. (Financial Incentives)

New Investments

An additional €150 million was invested over one year. Local authorities could be reimbursed for setting up financial incentive campaigns that supported carpooling.

• Passengers could carpool for free or for a few euros.
• Drivers also got a bonus for each passenger and could earn money by car sharing.

In 2023, the Government began supplementing the financial incentive offered carpool drivers and passengers by their local transportation authorities, paying €1 for every €1 contributed by the local authority.

In addition, a Green Fund of €50 million was offered in 2023 to support local authorities with their carpooling infrastructure development projects (e.g., carpooling areas or lines, or experimentation with dedicated carpool lanes). The fund covered up to 80% of expenses. (Overcoming Specific Barriers)

Some communities set up carpool lines with stops, which were much like standard bus lines. For drivers, this meant driving along a defined route to pick up any waiting passengers. Passengers spent a few seconds on the rideshare app to indicate they wanted a lift and, on average, four minutes waiting at a stop for their lift. (Overcoming Specific Barriers)

Short Carpooling Trips

• These trips had to be less than 80 km, using an eligible carpooling operator.
• Drivers using an official rideshare platform for the first-time received a €100 bonus - at least €25 for the first trip and an additional €75 after 10 trips. To be eligible for reimbursement, the driver had to make at least 10 shared journeys within three months. (Building, Motivation, Engagemnent and Habits Over Time)
• The bonus was paid to the user in the form of money or a voucher for everyday consumer products.

Long Carpooling Trips

• These trips had to be at least 80 km, using an eligible carpooling operator.
• This reimbursement was like the one for short trips and could be combined with it.
• Drivers using an official rideshare platform for the first-time received a bonus of €100 via the carpooling platforms, in the form of a progressive payment of €25 following a first carpooling trip and then €75 following their 3rd carpooling trip if this was completed within 3 months.

Avoiding Competition with Transit

To gain support from LTAs, carsharing couldn’t compete with transit. If a person could make a trip by transit (100% = the whole way) they were not eligible for the financial incentives. (This helped overcome specific barriers with municipal governments and transit operators.)

Fraud Prevention

To prevent fraud, France introduced a carpooling proof register. 100% of carpool trips were validated at level ‘C’ (the highest level.) Trips were analyzed with double geolocation, with telephone calls when there were suspicious pairings (e.g. “may I speak with the passenger?”). France also strengthened identification requirements for collecting premiums, limited the amounts per driver, established an inter-operator fraud detection service, and banned fraudsters from using authorized carpooling platforms. By 2023, 21 carpooling operators and 139 regions used the register. (This also helped overcome specific barriers with local governments and transit operators.)

In addition, users couldn’t take a new trip too soon after taking a trip. Graduated sanctions for fraudulent use ranged from temporary to permanent bans from using the app. At the time of writing, 7,300 fraudulent accounts had been identified and banned, saving €7.5 million of public money.

Promotion

France targeted large employers first and then went after smaller companies, so that there were enough ride matches for those in the smaller companies. Passengers quickly realized that they could save €100 euros per month. (Financial Incentives; Word of Mouth)

Local authorities responded quickly, with over €8 million of their projects financed by the Green Fund. This included 26 local initiatives engaging residents and/or businesses to reflect on local carpooling needs, 18 incentive campaigns, 91 new carpooling areas, and 22 carpooling lines. At the time of writing there were 164 additional projects under review, representing €25 million of state support. (Financial Incentives; Norm Appeals; Overcoming Specific Barriers)

The plan also encouraged employers to promote carpooling to their staff. It launched a commitment strategy for employers with 16 large employers signing on at launch time, representing nearly one million employees. (Obtaining a Commitment)

Apps and Integration with Transit

Different apps were developed for use in different regions of France. We’ll look at one carpooling app as an example. Karos Mobility Technology was powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and geolocation. The app learned its users’ daily mobility habits, predicted their next trips with 80% accuracy, and provided tailored and optimized door-to-door itineraries with suggested carpool pairings where appropriate. (Building Motivation and Engagement Over Time; Vivid, Personalized, Credible, Empowering Communication)

The app integrated with public transport, so that carpool options were shown on the transit authority’s trip displays when a user looked up a trip; the trip options provided might have included a portion using rideshare and another portion using public transit. The final step in booking a trip was a chat between the individuals involved. (Prompts)

On average, the app offered 18 carpool opportunities for each commute. Out of 10 commute trips a week, its users took an average of 5.5 carpool trips, with 7.6 different carpoolers; and 98.9% of booked carpools were used.

The QR coded transport tickets could be used for both carpooling and transit and the region paid the carpool driver. Karos billed the federal government directly, and its users paid and got paid monthly using a wallet that was part of the app.

Overcoming Barriers

The following table summarizes the key barriers to action and how each was addressed. (Overcoming Specific Barriers)

For LTAs and Employers 

Barrier	How it was addressed
Fraud	·         To prevent fraud, France introduced a carpooling proof register. It strengthened identification requirements for collecting premiums, limited the amounts per driver, established an inter-operator fraud detection service, and banned fraudsters from using authorized carpooling platforms.
Cost, Other priorities	·         Employers did not need to pay social security contributions when they contributed financially. ·         Green Fund of €50 million supported local authorities in their carpooling infrastructure development projects
Possible competition of carpooling with transit	·         To gain support from LTAs, carsharing couldn’t compete with transit. If a person could make a trip by transit (100% = the whole way) they were not eligible for the financial incentives.
Insufficient ride matches to promote carpooling effectively in small organizations	·         France targeted large employers first and then went after smaller companies, so that there were enough ride matches for those in the smaller companies.

 

For Consumers 

Barrier	How it was addressed
Cost / income tax implications	·         Drivers who received financial contributions from their carpool passengers did not need to pay the Value Added Tax (VAT) nor social security contributions on these contributions, which were not considered income. ·         Financial incentives
Other priorities	·         The plan encouraged employers to promote carpooling to their staff. It launched a commitment strategy for employers, and 16 large employers signed on, representing nearly one million employees, at launch time.
Effort required to find rides	·         Green Fund of €50 million promoted development of better carpooling infrastructure ·         Apps made carpooling easy. See text above for details.
Fear of strangers, mostly among passengers	·         The apps’ chat functions enabled users to become acquainted, and reassured passengers before carpooling
Trips that did not work out (unrealized) or that took longer than predicted discouraged users	To minimize unrealized trips, Paris/France: ·         Incentivized and promoted carpooling so that there would be enough people carpooling, and enough people to carpool with. ·         Targeted large employers first and then went after smaller companies, so that there were enough ride matches for those in the smaller companies. ·         Supported improvements to ride-matching apps.

Measuring Achievements

The carpool platforms calculated impacts and the data are pooled by the national carpooling observatory. Carpool trips were validated with double geolocation, and with telephone calls when there were suspicious pairings.

Feedback

Feedback was provided through the apps.

Results

In 2023 there were 700,000 users. On average, they each took 14 carpool trips a year and avoided the emission of .07 metric tonnes of CO2. In the Paris region (surrounding but not including Paris itself), the existing mass transit system had been able to serve 36% of inhabitants - that rose to 91% with the service.

Impacts Within a Few Weeks

• Within a few weeks of the launch of the National Daily Carpooling Plan, carpool trips increased by 40%. 

Impacts Within Four Months

• For the month of March 2023 alone, the platforms served over a million journeys of less than 80 km. That's twice as much as in the previous year. 80,000 new users had registered since December 2022 for home-to-work carpooling. More than 29,000 had already received the entire bonus of 100 euros, paid in two instalments.
• On average, operators had three to four times more subscribers than at the end of 2022.

Impacts Within Six Months

• The national carpooling observatory recorded 130,000 new carpool drivers and an average of over 5.1 million carpooling journeys per platform in six months, more than double compared to 2022 over the same period.
• That avoided nearly 25,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions and save the equivalent of 7.7 million liters of oil.

For More Information

http://www.ecologie.gouv.fr./faq-forfait-mobilites-durables-fmd

http://www.toutsurmesfinances.com/argent/a/forfait-mobilites-durables-pour-qui-pour-quel-montant

http://blog.worklife.io/forfait-mobilites-durables-bilan-2-ans-apres

http://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/plan-national-covoiturage-bilan-6-mois-positif-et-nouvelles-actions-engagees-promouvoir-covoiturage

http://hal.science/hal-03994900/document

http://departementexpertises2018.wimi.pro/shared/#/folder/
08376de9571431109a36912748824d0d102244b0804385ff77c588fdcdaa727f

Notes

 Lessons Learned

• Innovative program components that contributed to success included: financial incentives to local travel authorities (LTAs), employers and employees to promote carpooling; funding the development of carpooling infrastructure and ridesharing platforms that made it easier to carpool; and fraud prevention mechanisms.
• This approach was expanded successfully to different regions in France, served by different ridesharing platforms. This indicates that the approach could be implemented in other countries where car-driving is the main mode of transport.
• To maximize effectiveness, combine economic and non-economic incentives.

Landmark Designation

The program described in this case study was designated in 2023.

Designation as a Landmark (best practice) case study through our peer selection process recognizes programs and social marketing approaches considered to be among the most successful in the world. They are nominated both by our peer-selection panels and by Tools of Change staff and are then scored by the selection panels based on impact, innovation, replicability, and adaptability.

The panel that designated this program consisted of:

• Aaron Gaul, UrbanTrans
• Nathalie Lapointe, Federation of Canadian Municipalities
• David Levinger, Mobility Education Foundation
• Nicole Roach and Charlotte Estey, Green Communities Canada
• Jessica Roberts, Alta Planning + Design
• Lisa Kay Schweyer, Foursquare ITP
• Phil Winters, CUTR and the University of South Florida